Introduction:
The Indus valley civilization was followed by the Vedic civilization. Better known as Vedic period, it may be classified in two parts, Early Vedic Age or Rigvedic Period (1500-1000 BC) and Latter Vedic Period (1000-600 BC). The Aryans were semi-nomadic, pastoral people who originally inhabited the area around the Caspian sea in Central Asia. The term ‘Aryan’ meant pure and implied the invaders. The Rig Veda is the earliest specimen of any Indo European language. The creators of the Vedic civilization are known as Aryans. They were settled in Sapta Sindhava, the core geographical area which would relate to the Rig Veda, that corresponds to east Afghanistan, Punjab and Western Uttar Pradesh, the land of seven rivers.
Early Vedic or Rigvedic Period:
Social
The basic unit of Aryan society was family There was a joint family system and the father was the head of the joint family. Hence, it was a patriarchal family. Society was divided into three groups (Varnas)warriors, priests and commoners, on the basis of occupation. By the end of the Rigvedic period, they added a fourth: Dasas or darks. Hence, social classes or groups had settled in chaturvarnas. At the top of the chaturvarnas, were the Priests (Brahamans). Next came the warriors (Kshatriyas), the crafts people and merchants (Vaishyas) and servants (Shudra). Social classes became completely inflexible. Monogamy was widely accepted although polygamy was also not unknown and even polyandry is mentioned in later writings.
Political
The family or Kula was the ultimate basis of the Vedic State. It was headed by Kulapas or Grihanatis. An aggregate of villages made up the (district or clan) and a group of Vis made a Jana (tribe) Vis was headed by Vispati. Jana had a hereditary Chieftain called Rajan. The Rajan only ruled over his Jana and not over any specified territory. They lived in villages (Grams) headed by the Gramani. Initially, women participated in the Sobha.
Religion
Early Vedic people looked up to the natural forces as divine. Indra, a war god, breaker or forts associated with storm and thunder, was the supreme god for Aryans. Important goddess were : Diti (mother of the Daityas), Aranyani (goddess of forests and wild creatures), Ila (mother of the cattle herds), Ushas (goddesses of dawn), Aditi (goddess of eternity). Religion meant a direct communication with the gods through sacrifices, hymns and prayers. Gods were worshipped only for material gains. Other important gods were : Arni (intermediary between gods and men), Varun (god of waters, clouds, oceans and rivers and moral governors of the deities), Dyaus (god of heaven and father of Surya), Tvastri (Vedic vulcan), Ashvins (healer of diseases), Martus (gods of storm), Pushan (protector of cattle and the god of merriages), Savitiri (god of light) and Yama (god of death).
Ritu or the natural order was supposed to be upheld by Varuna.
Vedic Literature
The whole Vedic literature has been divided into four sections--the four Vedas, the Brahmanas, the Aryanyakas and the Upanishads. The allied Vedic literature are Smriti literature, Sulras, Vedangas and The Six Shastras also represent the 6 systems of Indian Philosophy. Besides six systems of Philosophy (Darshan) are Nyaya by Gautama: Vaishesika by Kanada, Sankva by Kapila; Yoga by Patanjali; Purva Mimamsa by Jaimini and Uttara Mimamsa by Badarayana. Nyaya means analysis, Vaiseshtkna means School of individual characteristic, Sankhya means enumerations (Oldest philosophy), Yoga means application, Mirnamsa means enquiry and Uttar Mimamsa or Vedanta means End of the Vedas. Upa-vedas.
The Rig Veda is a collection of 1028 hymns in praise of different gods recited by the priest styled Hotri. It is divided into X Mandals of which II to VII form the Earliest portion. Aitraya and Kaushataki Brahman are attached to it. In the Sama Veda, all of its Verses except 75 are taken from Rig veda. The songs were meant to be sung at ‘Soma’ sacrifices by the priest Udgatri. It is important for the History of music. Tandyamaha and Jaiminiya Brahman are attached to it.
Yajur Veda deals with the procedure for the performance of sacrifice. lt contains rituals as well as hymns recited by Adharvayu. The Veda is in prose while Rigveda is in verse. Satapatha and Taittiriya Brahman are attached to it.
Atharva Veda is a book of Magical formulae that contains Charms and Spells to ward off evils and diseases. It is supposed to be a non-Aryan work and is excluded from Trayi. It contains Gopatha Brahmana. Brahmanas deal with the Science of sacrifice. They give rule for the performance of the sacrificial ceremonies. Each Brahmana is connected with one of the Veda.
Aranyakas are forest books. meant for instruction to be given for forest dwelling hermits. They are found as Appendices to the Brahmanas and mark the transition from Ritualistic to Philosophical religion. Upanishad literally mean ‘to sit near some one'. It marks the culmination of Vedic thought. They are 108 in number. It dwells on Atman and Brahma. Vedangas are not called Sruti, because they are of human origin and are written in the form of Sutras. They are six in number: Shiksha (Phonetics), Kalpa (Ritualistic science), Jyotisha (Astronomy), Vyakaran (Grammar), Nirukta (Etymology), Chanda (Metrics). Yaksha's Nirukta is the oldest Indian Linguistic text. Panini’s Astadhyayi is the oldest Indian Grammar. Pingala wrote on Chanda.
Sutras: Kalpa Sutra has three divisions
- Srayuta Sutra deals with large Public Sacrifices.
- Griha Sutra deals with Domestic Sacrifices like birth, naming etc.
- Sulva Sutra prescribes various kinds of measurement for the construction of Sacrificial Altars. It marks the beginning of Geometry and Mathematics.
Important Upavedas are Ayurveda, Dhanurveda, Gandharvaveda and Shilpaveda. Puranas are 18 in number and include list of Old dynasties, Dharrna Shastras are books on Law and Judicial procedures. Important Dharmashastras are Manu Smriti, Vishnu Smriti, Yagnavalkya Smriti and Narada Smriti.
Later Vedic Period
This period between 1000 and 600 BC was also called the Brahmanic period because the Later Vedic Age was dominated by the Brahamanas or priestly books, and every aspect of Aryans life had come under the control of priestly rituals and spells. Later Vedic Age is better known as Epic period because the great literary heroic epics of Indian culture, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana originated and were told in this period. The tiny, early tribal settlements were replaced by strong kingdoms. The concept of State emerged and now the wars were not fought merely for cows but also for lands. The king became very powerful compared to the tribal Chieftain. He was no longer bound to accept the advise tendered by Sabha and Samiti. The King was now called Samrat. Aryans expanded from Sapt Sindhava to the Ganga-Yamuna Doab and whole of the present eastern Uttar pradesh plains covering entire northern India. The Rajanas, who were protector of their tribes now came to be known as Kshatriyas. The Rigvedic assemblies lost relevance and in their place, 12 important officials called Ratnins came into being. The ‘Vis’ had to pay now for the protection of its fields and presentations or Bali and Bhaga were no longer paid at will. Now those had become regular tributes and taxes. Argiculture became the main occupation. Rice (known as Vrihi) was extensively cultivated apart from wheat and barley. Next come the Aranyakas or forest texts, books of instructions to be given in the forest or writings meant for wood-dwelling hermits, which are found as appendices to the Brahamana treatises.
The people who developed this culture were Aryans. They were lndo-Europeans who entered India through North-West. In comparison to Indus Valley Culture they were mainly rural people. Regarding their original homeland the consensus of opinion is that it was somewhere in Central Asia. From there they moved in different directions. One such group reached India via Persia. This group came to be known as lndo-Aryans and they developed a distinct culture in North India.
Battle of Ten Kings
The Aryans were engaged in two types of conflict. First they fought with the pre-Aryans and Secondly they fought amongst themselves. The Battle of Ten Kings belongs to the second type. The Battle was fought between Bharata and his ally Srinjaya on one side and Yadus, Turvasa, Druhyus, Anus, Purus and Five Indigenous Tribes on the other. The cause of the conflict was the division of the water of Ravi river. The Battle was fought on the banks of Purushni (Ravi) river. The war ended with the Victory of the Bharatas led by Sudas. The defeated side was led by the Puru King Purukutse. Later Bharatas joined hands with Purus to form the Kuru tribe. In another conflict Divodasa defeated the local Chieftain Sambara.
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